Sexuality, Heterosexual Hegemony, Race, Violence And African States

Sexuality, orientation, gender, race, development and health are undercurrents, one needs to factor into understanding violence in communities.

Why is it possible for a Black people to look the other way, witness, tolerate, accommodate or engage in what is known as "Black on Black" hate crimes and mostly do nothing about it?

There are some answers to this rather loaded question:

• Historical Hegemonic Identity Perpetration: Many Black nations were colonies of European or Arab countries. The norm was as follows: un questioning deference was expected from Blacks in the presence or absence of Colonists (Whites and Asians). These ones made sure that they let it be known that anything Black was backward, Satanic and inferior. Blacks were paid as long as they maintained and ensured deference to Whites and Asians. When the African nations gained independence, systems remained that ensured this deference was perpetuated overtly and covertly. At the top position of the totem pole is: White, Heterosexual Male and the rest fall in line. The Black Person is at the last rung, the Black Homosexual is way down below the Black Person!

• Black African States Connive against Black Citizens: We saw that when the African nations gained independence, systems remained that ensured this deference is perpetuated overtly and covertly. When Black African countries cannot invest in infrastructure which in turn improves standards of living of those citizens, this is the Alpha of all problems. It means those citizens would rather leave in the hope of finding greener pastures elsewhere. But when Black citizens are exposed to hostilities in these other countries but cannot report these back to their home countries, then it is a betrayal of the highest order. Cases of Black citizens raped, battered, ransomed, having internal organs removed and disappearances are common. When Black Citizens show concern, then they are dismissed (a concept known as ‘externalization’).

• Impunity, Xenophobia And Abusing The Privilege of Citizenship: Blacks have not explored the fact that  provisos of self preservation, self esteem, self determination, agency and autonomy can be affirmed within and beyond borders. It is not surprising that they do not appreciate their privacy and the fact that they are self determining. This is the true meaning of “Citizenship.” Many rather rely on and wait for what their government decree about their own private lives. The power of collective homogeneity is not explored when they are living in countries other than their own home countries. They may not form Diaspora support organizations. Or, if these Diaspora support organizations exist, many may not subscribe to them. Citizenship is not fully explored. This means that they do not have structures to address xenophobia and impunity against them as immigrants, new citizens, permanent residents, short term employees, foreign students, transit immigrants or undocumented persons.

So, do not be surprised when Parliaments of Uganda, Nigeria and Kenya pass anti-homosexuality Acts. Or can deny that their citizens (especially girls or women doing domestic chores) are facing torture in other countries such as Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, Thailand and other countries where they go for short term jobs. Do not be surprised when communities engage in extrajudicial beatings (assault) or killing (murder) of other community members.

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The Link Between Violence Against Women and Children And Quality of RMNCAH Outcomes In 8 African Countries

Background: Effective and quality RMNCAH outcomes are linked to reduced risk to violence. This study explored negative stereotypes of hegemonic masculinity and the social structures linked to it. An exploration of 8 Sub-Saharan African countries found 3 country-specific definitive social structures impacting the stereotypes, i.e., Enabling; Restrictive; and Hindering structures.

Methods: A meta-analysis of data from 2015-2019 of relationship between violence against women and children, is reflected in: Trauma Informed Care (TIC); comprehensive RMNCAH strategies such as IMNI, A/PNC, KMC, perinatal death review, and/or integrated maternal and perinatal death surveillance and response (MPDSR) processes; enforcement of legal gender equality; religious and traditional support for respect and dignity of women; uptake of gender-specific prevention services; Domestic Violence (DV) reports and HIV Prevention. 170 articles and reports were identified but 80 met inclusion criteria.

Results: Stereotypes of hegemonic masculinity exist in all 8 countries studied. Politics, religion and tradition influence risk reduction, e.g., enforcement of legal gender equality, political commitment and accountable judiciary ensure women can report abuses. Male dominance beliefs; traditions e.g. precarious toxic masculinity, indifference to expectant mother health by males, stigmatization of frequent clinic visits; and gender of breadwinner are linked to violence-related risks. Compared to all 8 countries, Rwanda, Ethiopia and Kenya have a hindering structure promoting significant risk reduction with institutions fostering increased rule of law, political commitment to RMNCAH outcomes, enforcement and risk-reduction consciousness. Uganda and Tanzania have a restrictive structure characterised with legal loopholes, irregular enforcement and ambivalent political commitment to address acts of violence against women and children. In Senegal, South Africa and Nigeria political, religious and traditional factors blatantly backing traditional negative stereotypes of hegemonic masculinity foster violence enabling structures entrenching repressive acts and hate crimes against women and children. In all countries however, Delivery room reception; level of Health Information Management skills; HIV criminalization; affinity and sensitivity to quality health by all people; stigma around attending clinics by males; negotiating for safer sex by women which is circumscribed as a threat to male dominance, subvert or support optimal RMNCAH goals.

Conclusions: Justice dispensation, economic autonomy, religion and traditional backing contribute effectively to risk-reduction. Contexts hindering violence prevail where state-led commitment thrives and these have far reaching benefits e.g., more people benefit from RMNCAH outcomes. Effective and quality RMNCAH programming in the countries studied will be effective if it is designed to address hegemonic masculinity practices too. Mortality implementation audits need to be disaggregated to reflect causes of and contributing factors to deaths.